VDI 2230 (006): Preload Design R1βR6
The upper half of the VDI 2230 calculation chain R1βR6 explained: the tightening factor Ξ±A, the three sources of the minimum clamping force FKerf, the choice of force-ratio Ξ¦ formula, preload loss (embedding + thermal expansion), and the derivation of the minimum and maximum assembly preload.